The human factor in avalanche terrain is how emotions, habits and group dynamics distort our decisions, even when we know the danger. Avalanche researcher Ian McCammon described six recurring heuristic traps, known as FACETS: Familiarity, Acceptance, Consistency, Expert halo, Tracks/Scarcity and Social facilitation. Recognising them, agreeing on a plan in advance and giving everyone a voice are the best defences.
Why do things go wrong – even when we “know it all”?
Many serious avalanche accidents happen on days with obvious warning signs: a forecast of danger level 3 (considerable) or higher, lots of new snow and strong wind. Often, the people caught have read the forecast and understood the risks. Yet the accidents still happen.
Why? Because humans fool themselves.
In avalanche terrain, knowledge isn’t enough. We must understand how feelings, routines and social pressure influence our choices.
This is, in my opinion, the most interesting chapter in avalanche safety, and it’s one of the areas I spend a lot of time working on.
This article is part of Uteguiden’s Avalanche School. If you haven’t already, read the chapters on avalanches, weather and wind and essential avalanche gear.
When knowledge isn’t enough
Avalanche danger can often be assessed without advanced snow profiles. Just as we recognise that the road is slippery when cars are in the ditch, we know that strong wind and new snow create slab avalanche risk. Recent avalanches, shooting cracks and “whumpf” sounds are the mountain’s equivalent of cars in the ditch.
The problem is rarely a lack of information. It’s how humans make decisions.
In steep terrain, we easily fall back on instincts and emotions. These strategies work fine in everyday life, where most decisions have small consequences and quick feedback. In avalanche terrain they become dangerous, because a bad decision often goes unpunished many times before it suddenly goes very wrong.
Research by avalanche educator Ian McCammon, presented at the International Snow Science Workshop (ISSW) in 2002, analysed several hundred recreational avalanche accidents in the United States. He found that many of them could be explained by mental shortcuts, so-called heuristic traps, and he identified six recurring patterns.
These are known as FACETS, and they are important for anyone travelling in the winter mountains.
FACETS – the six heuristic traps
1. Familiarity – the power of habit
We often take the greatest risks in places we know well. Previous positive experiences make us push the limits, even when the conditions are completely different from the last time we were there. “We’ve skied this slope a hundred times” says nothing about today’s snowpack.
2. Acceptance – the desire to fit in
The need to be accepted and to make a good impression can lead us to choices we wouldn’t normally make. In McCammon’s data, mixed groups of men and women tended to expose themselves to more risk than all-male groups – a reminder that wanting to impress others is a real force in the mountains.
3. Consistency – “we must reach the goal”
Once we have decided on an objective, we want to stick to it. Without a clear Plan B, we become locked into reaching the summit or the planned line and continue even when conditions clearly say otherwise. Larger groups can make this worse, because turning around feels like letting everyone down.
4. Expert halo – the wrong leader
The best skier, the most experienced mountaineer or the person who knows the area best is often seen as the leader, even if they lack avalanche knowledge. The rest of the group stops thinking for themselves. Groups where everyone contributes to the decision are better at spotting warning signs that one person might miss.
5. Tracks/Scarcity – the race for fresh powder
Fear of “missing out” on untracked snow leads to rushed decisions, especially when several groups are competing for the best lines. Powder days often coincide with fresh snow and wind loading – exactly the conditions that call for patience.
6. Social facilitation – when someone is watching
Experienced groups tend to take bigger risks when others are observing them. The urge to show that you “know what you’re doing” can push you farther than you should go. Existing tracks on a slope can have the same effect: they feel like proof of safety, but they are not.
FACETS at a glance
| Trap | What it sounds like | Ask yourself |
|---|---|---|
| Familiarity | “We always ski this.” | Are today’s conditions the same as last time? |
| Acceptance | “I don’t want to be the one who says no.” | Would I make this choice if I were alone? |
| Consistency | “We’ve come this far.” | What is our Plan B, and is it time to use it? |
| Expert halo | “She knows the area, she’ll decide.” | Has everyone actually assessed the conditions? |
| Tracks/Scarcity | “Let’s go before the others get there.” | Is the rush coming from the snow or from me? |
| Social facilitation | “They’re watching, let’s show them.” | Would I do this if nobody was looking? |
How do we avoid these traps?
The most important step is to acknowledge that everyone – even experts and guides – is affected by human factors. By recognising the traps, we can make better decisions. Review the FACETS list regularly and remind yourself of it during your trip.
Decide before you are in the terrain
Plan your route at home, with the avalanche forecast in hand. Agree on which slopes are acceptable, what would make you turn around, and what your Plan B is. Decisions made calmly at the kitchen table are less influenced by summit fever and fresh powder.
Use fixed decision points
Choose a few clear places along the route – a flat area before a steep slope, a ridge, a col – where the group always stops and discusses: What do we observe? Does it match the forecast? Are we still within our plan? Short, structured checks help break the autopilot.
Give everyone a voice
Agree in advance that anyone can say no, and that a “no” is respected without discussion. Ask the quietest person in the group first – experienced members tend to steer the conversation. One honest doubt is worth more than five quiet agreements.
Debrief after the trip
Talk through the day: Where were we unsure? Did we follow the plan? Did luck play a role? Honest debriefs turn close calls into lessons instead of false confidence.
Our guides work systematically with these principles every day. You can read more about how in operational avalanche safety at Uteguiden and on our safety page.
Basic safety routines
- Always carry complete avalanche equipment (transceiver, shovel, probe) – see our guide to essential avalanche gear.
- Practise companion rescue with your equipment regularly.
- Build avalanche knowledge – take an avalanche course.
- Read the avalanche forecast before every trip (in Norway: varsom.no).
- Never go alone – always have a partner to discuss decisions with.
- Do a transceiver check at the start of every tour.
Good habits
- Tour with people you can speak honestly with – and disagree with. It leads to better decisions.
- Take an avalanche course together with the people you normally tour with. It “calibrates” your decision-making and gives you a shared language.
- Be aware of when you enter avalanche terrain. If you’re unsure – turn back.
- Expose one person at a time on suspect slopes and regroup in safe spots.
Learn more with Uteguiden
Human factors are best learned in the field, where you practise making real decisions with an experienced instructor. Not sure which level suits you? Read which avalanche course to choose or our overview of avalanche courses in Norway in English.
- Basic avalanche courses: Stranda, Åndalsnes, Bjorli and Hemsedal.
- Advanced avalanche courses: Stranda and Hemsedal.
- Ski touring technique and route choice: Uteguiden’s Ski Touring School and our ski courses.
- Prefer to let a professional make the calls? Join a guided ski tour – read more about guided ski touring in Sunnmøre.
Summary
Avalanche accidents rarely happen because of a lack of information, but because of how humans make decisions. Wind, new snow and danger levels can be learned from a forecast – but the human factors must be actively managed.
By recognising the FACETS heuristic traps, following basic safety routines, deciding in advance and making choices based on conditions rather than emotions, you significantly reduce your risk.
Want to learn more and feel safer in the winter mountains? We highly recommend taking an avalanche course or hiring a qualified guide when travelling in avalanche terrain. It leads to safer tours – and better experiences.
Frequently asked questions
What is the human factor in avalanche safety?
It describes how emotions, habits, social pressure and group dynamics influence decisions in avalanche terrain. Many accidents involve people who knew about the danger but still chose to enter risky terrain because of these influences.
What does FACETS stand for?
FACETS is an acronym for six heuristic traps described by avalanche researcher Ian McCammon: Familiarity, Acceptance, Consistency, Expert halo, Tracks/Scarcity and Social facilitation.
What is a heuristic trap?
A heuristic is a mental shortcut that usually works well in everyday life. It becomes a trap in avalanche terrain, where shortcuts like “we’ve done this before” or “others are skiing it” can lead to dangerous decisions.
Do experienced skiers fall into heuristic traps too?
Yes. Experience can even make some traps stronger, such as familiarity and social facilitation. Everyone, including guides, needs routines that counteract human factors.
How can a group make better decisions in avalanche terrain?
Plan the route and turnaround criteria in advance, use fixed decision points along the way, give everyone the right to say no, and ask the quietest members for their opinion first. Debrief after every trip.
Are tracks on a slope a sign that it is safe?
No. Existing tracks only show that the slope did not release for the people before you. The snowpack can still be unstable, and a later skier may hit a weak spot.
Where can I learn about human factors in practice?
An avalanche course is the best place to start, ideally together with the people you normally tour with. Uteguiden runs basic and advanced avalanche courses, and you can also join guided ski tours with certified guides.
